Who you are is partly your own choice and partly shaped by the society you grow up in. This chapter covers how identity is learned (socialisation), how society keeps people in line (social control), and what influences social identity today.
2.1 How do we learn our identity?
Key concepts
| Concept | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Culture | the whole way of life of a society: its language, beliefs, food, dress and behaviour | festivals, cuisine, religion |
| Norms | the unwritten rules of acceptable behaviour | queuing, greeting elders, silence in an exam |
| Values | shared beliefs about what is important or right | respect for family, honesty, education |
| Customs | traditional ways of behaving in particular situations | wedding ceremonies, gift-giving at Eid or Christmas |
| Roles | the expected behaviour that goes with a position | parent, student, teacher |
| Status | a person's position or rank in society: ascribed (given at birth: age, sex, caste) or achieved (earned: doctor, champion) | |
| Stereotypes | fixed, oversimplified ideas about a group ("teenagers are lazy") | often wrong and can harm |
These ideas shape behaviour and identity: we learn what is expected, copy it, and are rewarded or punished for it.
Nature or nurture?
- Nature says behaviour is mostly biological (inherited, instinct).
- Nurture says behaviour is mostly learned from culture and upbringing.
Evidence for nurture: feral children such as Genie, a girl in the USA who was kept isolated until the age of 13 and never fully learned language, show how much we need social contact to become fully human. Sociologists stress nurture, but most accept both play a part.
The relativity of culture means what is normal in one society may be unusual in another (dress, marriage customs, how people greet, eating with hands or cutlery). No culture is simply "right": behaviour is judged by the standards of the culture it is in.
Socialisation
Socialisation is the lifelong process of learning the culture of a society.
- Primary socialisation happens in early childhood, mainly in the family: language, basic norms and values.
- Secondary socialisation continues through the rest of life, in the agencies below.
| Agency | How it socialises | Process |
|---|---|---|
| Family | first and most powerful agency; teaches basic norms, gender roles | canalisation (steering a child's interests, such as dolls for girls and cars for boys), role modelling |
| Education | teaches knowledge, rules, punctuality, competition | hidden curriculum: the unwritten lessons of school (obedience, queuing, hierarchy, gender roles) |
| Peer group | people of similar age; teaches fitting in | peer pressure |
| Media | shows values, stereotypes and ideals | media representations (how groups are portrayed) |
| Religion | moral rules and beliefs | religious teachings |
| Workplace | work norms, discipline, teamwork | workplace training |
The effectiveness of each agency changes with the person and the time. The family is strongest in early life; peers matter most in the teenage years; the media now reaches almost everyone through social media. Agencies can conflict (a child's family and peers may teach different things).
Sociological perspectives on socialisation
| Perspective | View of socialisation |
|---|---|
| Functionalist (consensus) | socialisation teaches shared norms and values, creating value consensus and social cohesion. If it fails (inadequate socialisation), deviance results. Society is like a body whose parts work together. |
| Marxist (conflict) | socialisation teaches the ideology of the ruling class, so workers accept inequality; it reproduces social class. |
| Feminist (conflict) | socialisation teaches gender roles (masculinity and femininity) that keep men in power (patriarchy). |
Consensus theories see society as based on agreement; conflict theories see it as based on a struggle between groups with different interests.
2.2 How does society control us?
Social control is the ways society makes people conform to norms and values.
| Formal | Informal | |
|---|---|---|
| What | written rules, laws and punishments | unwritten, everyday pressure |
| Agencies | government, police, courts, penal system (prisons), armed forces | family, education, peer group, media, religion, workplace |
| Methods | law-making, coercion, digital surveillance, arrest, sentencing, imprisonment | approval and disapproval |
Sanctions are rewards and punishments:
- Positive sanctions reward conformity: praise, pocket money, promotion, social media "likes".
- Negative sanctions punish deviance: a fine, prison, a detention, ostracism (being shut out), disapproval.
Informal control is often more effective than formal control, because people follow it from habit and want to be accepted. Formal control is needed where informal control fails, but it is costly and does not reach everything (a lot of crime goes undetected).
Theories of social control
- Functionalism: control is necessary to keep order and protect shared values. Laws reflect a value consensus.
- Marxism: laws and control protect the ruling class and its property; the police and courts act harshly against working-class crime but leniently on white-collar crime.
- Feminism: control is stricter on women and keeps them in subordinate roles (for example, expectations of dress and behaviour); the law has been slow to deal with domestic violence.
Resistance to control
Some people resist control, through protest groups (climate or human-rights campaigns), and sub-cultures such as youth sub-cultures (punks, skaters, mods), online sub-cultures and religious sub-cultures. People join for identity, belonging, a cause, or because they feel excluded. This can be deviant (breaking norms) or simply non-conformist (different but not harmful). Not all resistance is illegal.
2.3 What influences our social identity?
Social identity is how we see ourselves and how others see us, as members of groups. Four key aspects are age, gender, ethnicity and social class.
| Aspect | Impact |
|---|---|
| Age | expectations of behaviour, rights and status change over the life course (children, youth, adults, the elderly); the elderly may lose status in societies that value youth, but gain respect in others |
| Gender | gender roles shape clothing, jobs and expectations; patriarchy means men often hold more power |
| Ethnicity | shared culture, language, religion and ancestry; may bring pride and belonging, or prejudice and discrimination |
| Social class | wealth, education and job shape lifestyle and life chances |
The impact differs in different societies: for example, age brings high status in some cultures and low status in others.
The digital self
Social networks, social media and virtual communities let people present and choose an identity online.
- Positive: connection, support groups, creativity, a voice for minorities.
- Negative: cyberbullying, comparing yourself with others, false identities, addiction, pressure to look perfect.
Globalisation and identity
Globalisation is the growing connection of the world through trade, travel, migration, media and technology.
| Effect | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Homogenisation | cultures become more alike (global brands, English, Western fashion) |
| Hybrid identities | people mix cultures (British Asian, music that blends styles) |
| Cultural defence | groups protect their traditional culture against outside influence (language laws, religious revival) |
Cultural diversity, multiculturalism and a global culture can be positive (tolerance, choice, enrichment) and negative (loss of local culture, tension between groups).
Postmodernist views
Postmodernists say identity today is chosen rather than given: class, gender and ethnicity matter less than they did. People build digital identities and express them through consumption and lifestyle (clothes, music, brands) in a "pick and mix" society. Criticism: not everyone has the money to choose, and class, gender and ethnicity still limit people's options.
Practise this chapter
Every past-paper question on these topics, with the mark scheme.