Social stratification is the way a society ranks people into layers (strata) according to wealth, power and status, like layers of rock. This chapter covers what the layers are, how they affect people's lives, what is done about inequality, and global inequality.
3.1 What is social stratification?
Open and closed societies
| Closed system | Open system | |
|---|---|---|
| Position decided by | ascribed status (birth) | achieved status (effort and ability) |
| Social mobility | little or none | possible: people can move up or down |
| Example | the caste system in India: a person's caste, from birth, decides their occupation and who they can marry | class system in many modern societies |
| Ideal | meritocracy: rewards go to the people with talent and effort |
Key terms:
- Poverty and wealth: absolute poverty means lacking basic necessities (food, shelter); relative poverty means having much less than others in the same society.
- Power: the ability to get your own way, even against opposition.
- Social mobility: movement between layers: upward, downward, or across; within a lifetime or between generations.
- Modern slavery: forced labour, human trafficking and debt bondage that still exist today, showing extreme inequality.
- Caste system: a closed system of hereditary groups, linked to the Hindu religion and strongest in India. Status is ascribed, with strict rules on marriage and occupation. It is illegal to discriminate on caste in India, but caste still affects people's lives.
Life chances
Life chances are a person's opportunities to gain things society values (education, a good job, health, housing, a long life). They are affected by age, gender, ethnicity and social class:
| Area | Example of inequality |
|---|---|
| Education | middle-class pupils usually achieve higher grades |
| Employment | women often paid less (gender pay gap); some ethnic minorities face discrimination in hiring |
| Health | poorer people are more likely to suffer illness |
| Housing | the poor live in cheaper, more crowded and less safe housing |
| Life expectancy | people in richer areas live longer |
Intersectionality means that these identities overlap and combine. A poor, elderly, ethnic-minority woman may face several disadvantages at once, which is more than adding them up.
Theories of inequality
Labelling theory (interactionist): people are given a label by others, and the label can shape their behaviour.
- Stereotypes lead to labels ("lazy", "troublemaker").
- A master status is a label that overrides all others in how people see you (such as "criminal" or "refugee").
- A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when a person lives up to a label that was put on them: a pupil labelled "failure" stops trying and then fails.
- Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that pupils whose teachers were told they would do well made greater gains, which supports labelling.
Marxism (conflict): society is divided between the bourgeoisie (who own the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). Inequality is built into capitalism:
- Exploitation: workers produce more value than they are paid.
- Ideological control: the ruling class spreads ideas (through school, media) that make inequality seem natural.
- Poverty trap: low pay and poor opportunities keep people poor.
- Reserve army of labour: unemployed people who can be hired cheaply, which keeps wages down and workers frightened of losing their jobs.
3.2 What attempts have been made to reduce social inequalities?
Government action and legislation
| Measure | How it reduces inequality |
|---|---|
| Progressive taxation | richer people pay a higher percentage of income in tax |
| Redistribution through benefits | tax money is paid to people with less (unemployment, child and disability benefits) |
| Minimum wage | a legal minimum hourly pay |
| Equal opportunities laws | make discrimination (by sex, race, age, disability) illegal |
| Other measures | free school meals, subsidised housing, scholarships, quotas |
Welfare states
A welfare state is a system in which the government protects its citizens' wellbeing. It may provide:
- free or universal education
- unemployment benefits
- pensions for the elderly
- low-cost housing
- free healthcare
- universal basic income (a regular payment to everyone, with no conditions; discussed and trialled in some places)
These improve life chances, especially for the poor, the sick and the old, but they cost a great deal and need high taxes.
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
NGOs are independent, non-profit organisations (such as the Red Cross, Oxfam, Edhi Foundation, Médecins Sans Frontières). Globally they work to reduce poverty, provide medical assistance, promote business (micro-loans, training) and improve education.
How successful have these attempts been?
| View | Criticism |
|---|---|
| New Right | the welfare state creates an underclass and a dependency culture: people rely on benefits instead of working; it undermines the family (Charles Murray) |
| Culture of poverty | poor people develop a way of life (fatalism, living for today) that passes down generations and keeps them poor |
| Marxist | the welfare state does not remove inequality; it makes capitalism more bearable, keeping workers healthy and quiet, while the rich keep their wealth |
| Feminist | equality laws are not enforced enough, and the welfare state assumes women will provide unpaid care in the family; patriarchy remains |
| Criticisms of NGOs | depend on donations, may not tackle the causes of poverty, can create dependence, are not accountable to local people |
3.3 How has globalisation affected inequalities between societies?
Migration
Immigration is moving into a country; emigration is moving out of one. Reasons:
- Push factors (make people leave): poverty, unemployment, war, persecution, natural disasters.
- Pull factors (attract people): jobs, higher wages, safety, education, family already there.
Effects on societies:
- increased cultural diversity (food, languages, festivals)
- economic: migrants fill labour shortages and send remittances home, but may put pressure on housing and services; the home country can lose skilled workers (brain drain)
- negative perceptions: migrants are often stereotyped and blamed for problems, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination
Global ecological issues
- Transnational companies (TNCs) operate in many countries; they can bring jobs and investment but also exploit cheap labour, cause pollution and move production where regulations are weak.
- Climate change and pollution affect poorer countries most, though they cause least of the problem.
- Urbanisation (growth of cities) can bring jobs but also slums, overcrowding and pollution.
Explanations for global inequality
| Explanation | Idea |
|---|---|
| Marxist | rich capitalist countries and TNCs exploit poor countries' labour and resources |
| Colonialism | European powers took resources and shaped economies for their own benefit, leaving a legacy of dependence and inequality |
| Feminist | patriarchy worldwide: women are paid less, own less land and have less education, so are more likely to be poor |
Practise this chapter
Every past-paper question on these topics, with the mark scheme.