Sociology studies how people behave in groups, and research methods are the tools sociologists use to find out. Every Paper 1 starts with a research methods question, and the other five topics all rely on these ideas. Learn the vocabulary here first.
1.1 How do sociologists approach the study of society?
Two approaches
| Positivist | Interpretivist | |
|---|---|---|
| Treats society as | a social fact: it exists outside us and shapes us (a macro view) | something people create through their actions and meanings (a micro view) |
| Method | the scientific method: measure, compare, test | try to understand the person's point of view |
| Data | quantitative (numbers, statistics) | qualitative (words, feelings, reasons) |
| Aim | find patterns and trends, cause and correlation | understand meanings and motivations |
| Strength | reliable, objective, large samples | valid, rich, in-depth detail |
| Weakness | may lack validity, ignores feelings | subjective, hard to repeat, small samples |
| Typical methods | questionnaires, structured interviews, official statistics | unstructured interviews, participant observation, case studies |
Social facts (a term from Durkheim) are things such as the suicide rate or the divorce rate. They can be counted, so positivists treat them like facts in science.
Verstehen is a German word meaning "understanding". Interpretivists try to see the world through the eyes of the people they study, rather than only measuring what they do.
Correlation and causation
A correlation is a link between two things, such as hours of study and exam marks. A cause is when one thing makes the other happen. A correlation does not prove a cause: ice-cream sales and sunburn both rise in summer, but one does not cause the other. The weather is a third factor.
Combining methods
- Triangulation means using two or more methods to study the same thing, then comparing the results. If they agree, the findings are more trustworthy.
- A longitudinal study follows the same people over a long time (for example, a group of children followed from age 7 to 21) to see how things change.
Evaluating research
| Term | What it means |
|---|---|
| Bias | the researcher's own opinions shaping the results |
| Interviewer effect | the interviewer's age, gender, ethnicity or manner changes how the person answers |
| Hawthorne / observer effect | people change their behaviour because they know they are being watched |
| Validity | the research shows a true picture of what is being studied |
| Reliability | another researcher repeating the research would get the same results |
| Representativeness | the sample has the same make-up as the group it stands for |
| Generalisability | the findings can be applied to the wider population |
1.2 What types of data and evidence do sociologists use?
Primary and secondary data
- Primary data is collected by the researcher for their own study (a survey they carried out). It fits the aim exactly but costs time and money.
- Secondary data already exists (collected by someone else). It is quicker and cheaper, but it may not fit the study or may be out of date or biased.
Quantitative and qualitative data
- Quantitative: numbers, statistics, percentages. Easy to compare and show in graphs, but gives little detail on why.
- Qualitative: words, quotations, descriptions. Gives depth and meaning, but is harder to compare and analyse.
Secondary sources
| Source | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Official statistics (government figures such as crime, census, exam results) | free, large, cover long periods | collected for the government's purposes, may hide unreported cases, definitions can change |
| Historical and personal documents (diaries, letters, photographs) | give an insider's view of the past | may be biased, unrepresentative, or not authentic |
| Digital sources (websites, social media, online forums) | cheap, up to date, large amounts of data | anyone can post, so accuracy and representativeness are doubtful |
| Media content (newspapers, TV, adverts) | show how groups are represented | reflect the owners' views and may exaggerate |
Reading tables, charts and graphs
When a question gives a table, chart or graph:
- Read the title and the labels on the axes or columns.
- Pick out the highest, lowest and any trend over time.
- Quote figures (with units) in your answer.
- Say what the source cannot tell you (for example, why the figures changed).
1.3 How do sociologists investigate society?
The stages of research design
- Selection of topic: what to study.
- Aims: what the research wants to find out.
- Hypothesis: a testable prediction, such as "Pupils who study with friends achieve higher grades". Positivist studies usually have one; interpretivist studies usually have only aims.
- Target population: the whole group being studied (all Year 11 pupils in a country).
- Methods: which methods to use.
- Operationalisation: turning an idea into something measurable (for example, "social class" measured by parents' jobs and income).
- Pilot study: a small trial run to test the method and fix problems before the real study.
Sampling
A sampling frame is the list of people the sample is drawn from (a school register). A sample is a smaller group chosen to represent the target population.
| Technique | How it works | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Random | everyone has an equal chance (names drawn from a hat) | fair, avoids bias | may not include every group; needs a full list |
| Systematic | every nth person on the list (every 10th) | simple and quick | can miss a pattern in the list |
| Stratified | the population is divided into groups (strata), then a random sample is taken from each in the right proportions | representative of the groups | needs detailed information, takes time |
| Snowball | one participant introduces others | good for hidden or hard-to-reach groups | not representative; depends on contacts |
| Quota | the researcher fills a set number from each group (50 men, 50 women) by choosing them | quick, cheap | researcher bias in who is chosen |
Primary research methods
| Method | What it is | Strengths | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Survey | questions put to a large sample | large, quantitative, representative | little depth |
| Questionnaire | written questions the respondent fills in | cheap, quick, large sample, anonymous | low response rate, closed questions limit answers, respondents may lie |
| Structured interview | fixed questions asked by an interviewer | reliable, easy to compare | little flexibility |
| Semi-structured interview | some set questions plus follow-up probes | balance of reliability and depth | interviewer effect, takes time |
| Unstructured interview | a conversation with a few themes | high validity, rich detail | time-consuming, hard to repeat, small sample |
| Group interview (focus group) | a discussion among several people | shows how opinions form | some members may dominate or follow the group |
| Participant observation | the researcher joins the group | real behaviour, high validity | takes a long time, risk of going native (losing objectivity), may be dangerous |
| Non-participant observation | the researcher watches without joining | less involvement, can record more | still the observer effect |
| Overt | the group knows it is being observed | ethical (consent) | Hawthorne effect |
| Covert | the group does not know | natural behaviour | deception, no consent, risky |
Types of question
| Type | Example | Good for | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Closed | "Do you own a phone? Yes / No" | easy to count, quick | no explanation |
| Open | "Why do you use social media?" | detail, own words | harder to analyse |
| Multiple choice | "Which is your main use? A, B, C, D" | easy to analyse | may not include the person's real answer |
| Scaled | "Rate from 1 to 5 how much you agree" | measures strength of opinion | people avoid the extremes; the points mean different things to different people |
Practical and theoretical issues
- Researcher perspective: a positivist will prefer questionnaires and statistics; an interpretivist will prefer observation and unstructured interviews.
- Access to the sample: some groups (gangs, wealthy people) are hard to reach or will not cooperate.
- Response rate: the percentage who reply. A low rate (common with postal or online questionnaires) leaves the sample unrepresentative.
- Funding/cost and time: large samples and long studies need more of both.
Ethical issues
| Issue | What it means |
|---|---|
| Informed consent | people agree to take part knowing what the study involves (under-age participants need a parent's consent) |
| Privacy/confidentiality | personal details are kept private and results are anonymous |
| Deception | misleading people about the purpose of the research |
| Prevention of harm | no physical or psychological harm to participants or the researcher |
| Legality | the research must not break the law |
Examples to quote: Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968), a field experiment on teachers' expectations (Pygmalion in the Classroom); Zimbardo (1973), the prison experiment, where participants conformed to the roles of guard and prisoner and some suffered distress, so it raises questions of harm.
Answering Paper 1
- "Identify"/"State": give a short point, no explanation.
- "Describe two...": give two points, each developed with a sentence.
- "Explain...": give the point and the reason.
- "Describe two strengths and two limitations": four separate points, linked to the method named.
- "To what extent..." (the 15-mark question): argue both sides, link to the source, and finish with a judgement.
Practise this chapter
Every past-paper question on these topics, with the mark scheme.