The family is the first agency of socialisation and one of the most studied institutions. This chapter covers its types, what theorists say it does, and how it is changing. Paper 2 candidates choose two topics from Family, Education and Crime.
4.1 What are the different types of families?
Family structures
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Nuclear | two parents and their children living together |
| Extended | the nuclear family plus other relatives (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins) in the same household or close by. Types: vertical or beanpole (several generations, few in each); horizontal (siblings and their families); modified extended (relatives live apart but keep in close contact and help each other) |
| Reconstituted (step/blended) | two families joined when divorced or widowed partners remarry or live together, bringing children from earlier relationships |
| Lone parent | one parent raising children alone (most often the mother) |
| Empty nest | a couple whose children have grown up and left home |
| Childless | a couple with no children, by choice or not |
| Other types | where local law and context allow, polygamous families (more than one spouse) and others may also be taught |
Each has strengths and limitations:
| Structure | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Nuclear | privacy, mobility, close parent–child bonds | less support, pressure on two adults, isolation |
| Extended | shared childcare and money, support, wisdom of elders | less privacy, possible conflict, harder for young people to move |
| Reconstituted | two adults share the load and income | conflict between step-relatives, loyalty problems |
| Lone parent | can be a happier home than a conflicted one | one income, stress, stigma |
Diversity
Family patterns vary cross-culturally (extended families are common in South Asia and the Middle East; small nuclear families in many Western countries), by social class (wealthy families may be more able to afford help with childcare) and by ethnicity (for example, higher rates of extended family living in some communities).
Sociological views on diversity
- New Right: the traditional nuclear family with married parents is the best setting for children; other forms, such as lone-parent families, are dysfunctional and linked to poor outcomes and crime.
- Postmodernists: family diversity is positive: people are free to choose how they live (Rapoport and Rapoport described diversity of organisation, cultural, class, life-stage and generational differences).
- Extent of diversity: despite diversity, the nuclear family is still the most common household type for children in many societies.
Alternatives to the family
Single-person households, shared households (flatmates), and friends as family (close friends who take the place of relatives).
Types of marriage
| Type | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Arranged | families choose or help choose the partner, with the couple's consent |
| Love | the couple choose each other |
| Monogamy | one partner at a time |
| Serial monogamy | several partners, one after another (marriage, divorce, remarriage) |
| Empty shell | a couple stay married in name only, without emotional attachment (for the sake of children or religion) |
Where it fits the local context and the law, other types such as polygamy can also be taught.
4.2 What is the role of the family for the individual and society?
Functionalist views
Functionalists see the family as an institution that meets society's needs and benefits members. Parsons said the nuclear family has two main functions: primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities (the "warm bath" theory: the family relaxes adults after the stress of work).
Murdock (1949) said the family performs four functions: sexual (a stable sexual relationship), reproductive, economic (providing for members) and educational (socialising children).
Loss of functions: Parsons argued that as society industrialised, many functions (education, healthcare, welfare) moved to the school, hospital and state, so the family became specialised in the two it still does best. They saw the nuclear family as best suited to an industrial society, because it is mobile and small.
Marxist views
Marxists say the family serves capitalism:
- it reproduces class inequalities (wealth is passed on within families through inheritance)
- it socialises children into acceptance of hierarchy (ideological control)
- it is a unit of consumption: families buy goods (and are targeted by advertisers)
- it absorbs the anger of workers (the wife and children may take the blame for frustration at work, so workers do not rebel against the boss)
- the family exploits members: the worker earns the wage and unpaid women's domestic work keeps the labour force healthy and ready
Feminist views
Feminists see the family as a place where men hold power (patriarchy):
- domestic division of labour: women still do most housework and childcare, even when working full time, a dual burden; adding emotional work gives a triple shift
- domestic violence and abuse is mostly against women, often unreported
- conjugal roles: segregated (separate tasks for husband and wife) and joint (shared tasks and time) (Bott)
- decision-making: men often have the final say on finance
- gendered socialisation: girls are taught to expect domestic roles
Evaluating the three
| Strengths | Limitations | |
|---|---|---|
| Functionalism | shows why the family matters for children and stability | too positive, ignores abuse and conflict; the "ideal" nuclear family is not the only healthy form |
| Marxism | shows links between family and class inequality | ignores gender and the family's positive side; assumes all families serve capitalism |
| Feminism | exposes hidden inequality and abuse | not all families are patriarchal; ignores that many men now share the work; more equality has come |
Is family life positive or negative?
Family life gives love, support, identity and security, but can also bring conflict, violence and abuse, restriction and, for many women, a heavy load of unpaid work. Views differ by theory and by family.
4.3 How is family life changing?
Demographic factors
| Factor | Change and effect |
|---|---|
| Birth rates | have fallen in most societies, so families are smaller |
| Family size | fewer children per family |
| Life expectancy | people live longer, so there are more four- and five-generation families (beanpole) and more years of grandparent–grandchild contact |
| Ageing population | more elderly people to care for (pressure on the sandwich generation, who care for both children and parents) |
| Having children later | women often have children in their 30s because of education and careers |
Industrialisation and urbanisation
Industrialisation moved work from the farm to factories and cities. Families moved for jobs, which weakened the extended family and favoured smaller nuclear families. (Note: Laslett argued that nuclear households were already common before industrialisation, and many extended networks have survived.)
Marriage, divorce and cohabitation
Explanations for changing patterns:
- Legislation: easier divorce laws, equal rights for women
- Societal attitudes and values: less stigma about divorce, living together, or being a lone parent
- Role of the internet: dating apps, wider choice of partners, online relationships
- Secularisation: decline in religious belief means less pressure to marry or stay married
- Cultural expectations: marriage may matter more in some cultures and families than in others
- Changes in the status of women (female empowerment): more women are educated and earn their own income, so they can leave unhappy marriages
Alternatives to marriage: cohabitation (living together unmarried), singlehood, lone parenthood and civil partnerships (legal recognition of a relationship, in some countries for same-sex couples).
Changing family roles
- Conjugal roles: a move from segregated to joint roles. Young and Willmott described the symmetrical family: husband and wife share work and leisure. The dual-worker family has two earners. Feminists argue inequality remains (the dual burden). The "pivot generation" (sandwich generation) cares for both children and elderly parents.
- Children: once an economic asset (working on the farm), now an economic burden or cost; families are child-centred, and grown-up children may return home (boomerang children) because of costs.
- Grandparents: provide childcare, economic support and wisdom and advice; but frail grandparents can also be seen as dependent or a burden on the family.
Practise this chapter
Every past-paper question on these topics, with the mark scheme.