Pakistan after the 'Decade of Progress'
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971–77)
Rise to power. After the defeat of 1971, Yahya Khan handed power to Bhutto (20 December 1971), who became the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator and President, then Prime Minister (1973–77). He was a lawyer, educated at Berkeley and Oxford, who had served as Ayub's Foreign Minister. He founded the PPP in 1967 ("Islam is our faith, democracy our policy, socialism our economy").
Controlling the army
- He retired many senior officers within months of taking power (dozens in all), including the Commander-in-Chief Gul Hasan and the Air Force chief Rahim Khan (1972); appointed General Tikka Khan and later Zia-ul-Haq (1976), who was thought to be loyal.
- He reorganised the defence structure, set up the Federal Security Force (FSF) (a force that was loyal to him, and was later accused of harassing opponents), and created the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
- Many believe that he underestimated Zia.
The Simla Agreement, 1972
Signed by Bhutto and Indira Gandhi at Simla on 2 July 1972. Terms:
- both countries agreed to settle disputes peacefully and bilaterally;
- in Kashmir the ceasefire line (of 1949) became the Line of Control (LoC), which neither side would change by force;
- India returned about 5,000 sq miles of captured Pakistani territory in the west and in time about 90,000 prisoners of war (released by 1973–74);
- diplomatic relations and trade would be gradually restored.
Judgement. It was a diplomatic success for Bhutto, who got back his people and land with no concessions on Kashmir (he said). Critics said that it turned Kashmir into a bilateral issue and ended the UN's role.
The 1973 Constitution
Unanimously adopted by the National Assembly on 10 April 1973 (signed 12 April, in force 14 August 1973) — Pakistan's first constitution agreed by all parties. Its main features:
- parliamentary system: a strong Prime Minister and a President with limited powers;
- two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate;
- federal with four provinces;
- Islamic provisions: Pakistan is an Islamic Republic, Islam is the state religion, the head of state and Prime Minister must be Muslims, laws must conform to the Quran and Sunnah, a Council of Islamic Ideology, and Urdu the national language;
- fundamental rights and an independent judiciary.
(See chapter 12 for the 1956 and 1962 constitutions.)
Reforms
| Area | Reforms |
|---|---|
| Industry | nationalised heavy industries (steel, chemicals, cement, fertiliser), banks and insurance (1972–74), edible oil mills and flour mills later. It was meant to break the power of the "22 families". Results: mixed: some growth in the state sector, but private investment fell, and inefficiency and corruption grew |
| Agriculture | land reforms (1972: ceilings of 150 acres irrigated and 300 non-irrigated; 1977 lower), but the big landlords kept most land through loopholes |
| Education | nationalised private schools and colleges (1972), free education to class 10, new universities such as the Allama Iqbal Open University (1974). At the time only about half of children were in school and literacy was low (about 25%). Problems: too little money, too few trained teachers and poor implementation in remote areas; literacy rose only slightly |
| Health and labour | labour reforms for workers and the right to form unions; a health scheme (from 1972) with Rural Health Centres and Basic Health Units in the villages, compulsory service for new doctors, and cheaper medicines (the use of generic names). Problems: too few doctors and nurses, and some drug companies left |
| Administration | reformed the civil service (ended the protected status of the CSP), and lateral entry |
| Foreign policy | recognised Bangladesh (1974), the Islamic Summit in Lahore (February 1974), improved links with China, Muslim states (Libya, Saudi Arabia, Gulf) and started the nuclear programme (see chapter 16); left the Commonwealth (1972) and SEATO (1973) |
| Religion | in 1974 the Ahmadis were declared non-Muslims under the Second Amendment; Friday made the weekly holiday and alcohol banned (1977) |
His overthrow, 1977
- Elections were held in March 1977, after nine opposition parties had joined to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). The PPP won a huge majority, but the opposition, the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), accused the government of rigging and demanded new elections.
- Protests, strikes and riots followed (it became a movement for "Nizam-e-Mustafa"). Bhutto tried to calm it by banning alcohol and gambling and making Friday the weekly holiday, and in April 1977 he put several big cities under martial law and thousands of PNA supporters were arrested. Talks between Bhutto and the PNA almost reached agreement, but on 5 July 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq overthrew Bhutto in Operation Fair Play and imposed martial law. Bhutto was tried for the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmad Khan Kasuri (the father of a political opponent), was found guilty, and was hanged on 4 April 1979.
Why was Bhutto overthrown? Rigged elections (alleged); a mass protest movement; the PNA opposition's religious appeal; his authoritarian style (the FSF, use of force against opponents, such as in Balochistan: the NAP government was dismissed in 1973 and an army operation began); economic problems (inflation, falling investment); loss of the support of the army and the middle class; Zia's ambition.
General Zia-ul-Haq (1977–88)
Coming to power. Bhutto had made him Chief of Army Staff in 1976, over the heads of several senior generals. Zia promised elections within 90 days, but in October 1977 he postponed them, saying that he would hold them after "accountability" (the removal of corrupt politicians); many politicians were disqualified from public life for some years, and the PPP was repressed. He became President in 1978 and ruled for 11 years.
The Islamisation programme
| Area | Measures |
|---|---|
| Legal | Hudood Ordinances (1979) introduced the Islamic punishments for theft, adultery (zina), drinking, and false accusation; the Federal Shariat Court (1980) to review laws for conformity with Islam; later blasphemy laws were strengthened (Section 295-C, 1986). The Law of Evidence (1984) made a woman's testimony equal to half of a man's in some cases |
| Economic | Zakat and Ushr Ordinance (1980) (a 2.5% deduction each year from savings accounts above a minimum balance, taken on the first day of Ramadan; Shias could claim exemption; Ushr, a 10% charge on farm produce, with local zakat committees to give the money to the poor); a policy of denationalisation that returned some industries to private owners; and interest-free "profit and loss sharing" (PLS) bank accounts; Islamic banking introduced |
| Education | Islamic Studies and Pakistan Studies compulsory; Arabic taught; religious schools (madrasas) gained funding and recognition; the Quran in the curriculum |
| Social | prayer facilities, a Ramadan ordinance (public eating and drinking in daylight prohibited, with a prison term and fine), the Nizam-e-Salat (prayer committees); religious teachers in the army were given officer status |
| Dress and media | hijab promoted on TV, restrictions on the arts and music |
Effects. Supporters said that it brought Islamic values. Critics said that it was used to gain legitimacy, divided society (Sunni–Shia and sectarian conflict grew), discriminated against women and minorities, and encouraged extremism.
The legal and constitutional position of women and minorities
- Women: the Hudood and Law of Evidence were criticised for harming women (for example zina cases against rape victims). Protests by the Women's Action Forum (founded 1981). On the other hand 20 seats were reserved for women in the National Assembly (1985).
- Minorities: separate electorates for non-Muslims were restored in 1985. Ordinance XX (1984) prevented Ahmadis from calling themselves Muslims or using Islamic terms. Christians and Hindus had blasphemy laws as a threat to them.
Law and government, elections and martial law
- Martial law (1977–85); the 1973 Constitution was suspended and ruled by Provisional Constitutional Order (PCO, 1981).
- Majlis-e-Shoora (a nominated advisory council), set up in 1981.
- Referendum, December 1984: asked whether voters supported the Islamisation programme, which meant that a "yes" gave Zia five more years as President. The turnout was low, though officially high.
- Non-party elections, February 1985: the opposition (MRD, Movement for the Restoration of Democracy) boycotted. Muhammad Khan Junejo became Prime Minister.
- The Eighth Amendment (1985): gave the President the power (Article 58(2)(b)) to dismiss the government and dissolve the National Assembly at his discretion. It also approved Zia's actions under martial law and restored the Constitution. Martial law ended on 30 December 1985.
- Junejo tried to act independently (for example on Afghanistan, where he consulted opposition leaders, and by ordering smaller official cars). On 10 April 1988 an arms depot at the Ojhri Camp near Rawalpindi exploded, killing and injuring many people; Junejo ordered an inquiry, which angered the army. In May 1988 Zia dismissed Junejo and dissolved the Assembly.
Problems facing Zia
- Legitimacy: he was a military ruler who came to power by force and hanged Bhutto, so many Pakistanis opposed him (especially in Sindh, the MRD movement 1983).
- Ethnic and sectarian violence: the MQM (1984) in Karachi, Sindhi nationalism, Shia–Sunni tension, the Kalashnikov and heroin culture spread from the Afghan war.
- Economy: reasonable growth, helped by remittances and US aid, but inequality, debt and corruption.
- Refugees: about 3 million Afghan refugees came in.
- Death: Zia died in a plane crash near Bahawalpur on 17 August 1988 with the US Ambassador and senior generals. The cause has never been proved.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979
- The USSR invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. Pakistan became a front-line state: it supported the mujahideen (with arms and training, supplied with US and Saudi money), and gave refuge to the Afghan refugees.
- Benefits: US aid (a $3.2 billion package in 1981 and later), modern weapons (F-16s), and international prestige. The US ignored Pakistan's nuclear programme.
- Costs: refugees, terrorist attacks and bombings in Pakistani cities by Soviet-Afghan agents (KHAD), the growth of weapons and drugs, and the militant groups. The Geneva Accords (April 1988) provided for the Soviet withdrawal. After the Soviet withdrawal (1989) the US lost interest, and sanctions came back in 1990.
Outline. Rigged 1977 elections (alleged) and the PNA protests; the economy; his authoritarian methods (the FSF, Balochistan); the religious opposition; and Zia's coup (5 July 1977). Judgement: the election crisis was the immediate cause, but the army was ready to take over.
Outline. Success: kept order for 11 years; Islamisation (Hudood, Zakat, Shariat Court); economic growth and US aid; helped to defeat the Soviets in Afghanistan. Failure: no legitimacy; sectarianism, ethnic violence, drugs and guns; discrimination; military dominance (the 8th Amendment). Judgement: mixed; his long-term effects were harmful to national unity.