East Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh
Background
East Pakistan (formerly East Bengal) had more people (about 56% of Pakistan) than West Pakistan, but was 1,600 km away across India. It was poorer, with different language, culture and customs. In the early years it was the jute that earned most of the country's foreign exchange.
Causes of tension between East and West Pakistan
| Area | Grievance |
|---|---|
| Language | the decision (1948) that Urdu alone would be the state language. The Language Movement: police fired on demonstrators at Dhaka University on 21 February 1952 (now Language Martyrs' Day); Bengali was recognised as a state language in 1954/1956 |
| Political | the Bengalis were the majority but were under-represented in the civil service and army (the army was mostly Punjabi). Parity in the 1956 Constitution gave them equal seats with the West. One Unit (1955) merged the western provinces into one to balance East Bengal. The Muslim League was swept out of power in East Bengal in the 1954 elections (to the United Front), but the central government dismissed the elected government (Section 92A). Military rule by West Pakistani generals (Ayub, Yahya) made it worse |
| Economic | jute (the main export) earned most foreign exchange, but most spending was in the West; the East had less development, fewer industries, and a smaller share of aid and investment. Bengalis felt exploited and spoke of "two economies" |
| Cultural/social | Bengali people felt looked down on by West Pakistanis; the government tried to remove Hindu influences from the Bengali language (for example in the script and poetry of Tagore) |
| Defence | during the 1965 war with India, East Pakistan was left undefended (the army was in the West), so Bengalis felt vulnerable |
| Natural disaster | the 1970 cyclone (November) killed several hundred thousand people. The slow response of the government angered the East |
(There were also earlier problems over the Partition of Bengal in 1905: see chapter 6.)
Some figures often quoted: Bengalis made up only about 10% of the army and about 15% of the central civil service although they were the majority of the population. The East earned most of the country's foreign exchange from jute, but most development money and industry went to the West.
The rise of the Awami League
- Founded in 1949 as the Awami Muslim League (the word "Muslim" was dropped in 1955) by Maulana Bhashani, with H.S. Suhrawardy as a leading figure. Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, an early organiser, became the party's leader after Suhrawardy's death in 1963.
- It campaigned for provincial autonomy and Bengali rights.
- Mujib was arrested several times, including in the Agartala Conspiracy Case (1968), which alleged that he planned the secession of the East with Indian help. The case was dropped in 1969 after protests and he became a hero.
The Six Points (1966)
Sheikh Mujib presented them at a conference in Lahore in February 1966. They called for:
- a federal, parliamentary government elected by adult franchise, with the Legislature sovereign;
- the federal government to be responsible for only defence and foreign affairs (and all other subjects to the provinces);
- two separate currencies (or one currency with measures to stop capital from flowing from East to West), and separate banking and financial reserves;
- taxation to be collected by the provinces, with a part given to the centre;
- separate foreign exchange accounts for East and West, and the East could make its own trade agreements;
- a separate militia or paramilitary force for East Pakistan.
Why they were rejected. Ayub Khan and the West Pakistani leaders thought that they would break up the country (they amounted to near independence for the East) and were a threat to the centre's power; Mujib was arrested. Many Bengalis felt it was their only hope.
Sheikh Mujib and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
- Mujib: leader of the Awami League, the voice of Bengali nationalism.
- Zulfikar Ali Bhutto: a former Foreign Minister under Ayub, who formed the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) in 1967, with the slogan "roti, kapra aur makan". He was the main leader in the West.
- After the 1970 elections the two leaders could not agree on how to share power.
The 1970 elections and the crisis of 1971
- The elections of December 1970 were the first on adult franchise.
- Result: the Awami League won 160 of 162 seats in East Pakistan, giving it an absolute majority (160 of 300) in the National Assembly; the PPP won 81 seats in West Pakistan (mainly Punjab and Sindh).
- Mujib was entitled to form a government, but Bhutto refused to accept him as Prime Minister and demanded a share of power. Yahya Khan postponed the meeting of the Assembly (planned for 3 March 1971) indefinitely.
- In the East, there were protests, strikes and a civil disobedience movement; Mujib's 7 March 1971 speech at Dhaka called for struggle.
- Talks failed. On 25 March 1971 the army launched Operation Searchlight in Dhaka to crush the movement, with many killed (estimates vary greatly) and arrests; Mujib was arrested and taken to West Pakistan. Independence was declared on 26 March 1971 in Mujib's name (it was broadcast by Major Ziaur Rahman).
The war and the role of India
- A guerrilla force, the Mukti Bahini, was formed. About 10 million refugees fled to India. India gave them shelter and trained and armed the Mukti Bahini, and criticised Pakistan.
- Pakistan's army in the East was far from its supply bases and had little local support.
- In December 1971 the UN Security Council debated the war, but ceasefire resolutions were blocked by the Soviet veto, and the USSR supported India.
- On 3 December 1971 Pakistan launched air attacks on Indian airfields, and a full-scale war began. The Indian army and the Mukti Bahini advanced into East Pakistan.
- On 16 December 1971 General A.A.K. Niazi surrendered to the Indian General Jagjit Singh Aurora at Dhaka. About 90,000 or more Pakistani soldiers and officials became prisoners of war. Bangladesh became an independent state.
- West Pakistan: the war ended on the western front too. Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto became President (20 December 1971). He later recognised Bangladesh (1974).
Why Pakistan's army lost. The East was 1,600 km from the West with hostile India between, so supplies and reinforcements could not arrive; most local people were against the army, and the Mukti Bahini gave India information and help; India had Soviet support while Pakistan got little active help from the USA or China; and the UN could not stop the war.
After the war. Mujib was released in January 1972 and became Prime Minister of Bangladesh (later President); he was killed in a coup in August 1975.
Why did East Pakistan seek independence?
| Reason | Detail |
|---|---|
| long-term grievances | language, economic neglect, little political power, cultural difference |
| the military governments | made Bengalis feel they were a colony |
| the Six Points rejected, Mujib arrested | denied autonomy |
| the election result ignored | the immediate cause of the revolt |
| army action (Operation Searchlight) | turned autonomy into a demand for independence |
| India's help | decisive in winning the war |
Outline. Mujib led the Awami League, which championed Bengali autonomy (Six Points), won the 1970 election, and led civil disobedience in March 1971; the League's call became independence; Mujib was arrested but became the symbol (Bangabandhu, "Friend of Bengal"), and the Mukti Bahini fought in his name. Judgement: central, though the army action, Bhutto–Yahya decisions and India also decided the outcome.