Water
Dams and barrages
| Name | River | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Tarbela Dam | Indus (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) | the largest earth-filled dam in the world; completed in 1976; irrigation, hydroelectricity and flood control |
| Mangla Dam | Jhelum (Azad Kashmir) | completed in 1967; built as part of the Indus Basin Project to replace the eastern rivers; irrigation and power |
| Warsak Dam | Kabul River (near Peshawar) | built in the 1950s; irrigation and electricity |
Barrages (low dams with gates that raise water levels to send water into canals): Sukkur, Guddu and Kotri on the Indus in Sindh; Taunsa; Chashma (the Chashma–Jhelum Link Canal); and Trimmu on the Chenab. Link canals carry water between rivers, distribution canals and field channels take it to farms.
Water as a resource
- Irrigation: about 90% of water use is for agriculture. The Indus Basin Irrigation System is one of the world's largest.
- Industrial: textiles, fertilisers, sugar and leather need large amounts; domestic: drinking and washing.
- Power: hydroelectricity from dams.
- Sources: rivers (glacier and snowmelt, and rain), groundwater through tubewells and wells; rainwater harvesting.
- Control: dams, barrages and canals store and distribute water; embankments protect from floods.
The Indus Waters Treaty (1960)
Signed by India and Pakistan (President Ayub Khan and Prime Minister Nehru) with the World Bank as mediator, after the dispute that began in 1948:
- India was given the eastern rivers: Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
- Pakistan was given the western rivers: Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.
- Pakistan received funds to build link canals and dams (Mangla and Tarbela) to replace its lost water.
Consequences. It settled a major conflict and gave Pakistan a basis for development, but the eastern rivers became dry in Pakistan, and later disputes appeared over Indian dams on the western rivers.
Silting of reservoirs
Causes: steep, fast rivers in the northern mountains carry huge amounts of silt and gravel, made worse by deforestation and erosion. Effects: dams such as Tarbela and Mangla lose storage capacity, so less water for irrigation and hydel power; canals become blocked; and flood flows can damage structures. Control: afforestation on the slopes, silt traps and check dams, desilting canals, lining canals, and raising dam walls.
Problems of water supply
| Problem | Causes | Solutions |
|---|---|---|
| shortage | rising population, drought, glacier changes, wasteful irrigation (about 40% lost through leakage), silting of dams | new dams (such as Diamer-Bhasha), lining canals, drip and sprinkler irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and water pricing |
| pollution | untreated sewage and industrial waste in rivers, fertiliser and pesticide run-off | treatment plants, laws on dumping, education |
| waterlogging and salinity | seepage from unlined canals and over-irrigation | drainage (SCARP tubewells; the Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects began in 1959), planting eucalyptus (it takes up a lot of water), lining canals |
| floods | monsoon rains and glacier melt | embankments, dams, early warning |
Water and conflict. Disputes can arise between countries (Pakistan and India over the Indus rivers; Pakistan and Afghanistan over the Kabul River) and between provinces (Punjab and Sindh over the share of water; the Water Apportionment Accord, 1991). Shortages can cause migration and unrest.
Forests
Types and locations
| Type | Where | Trees |
|---|---|---|
| Alpine forests | the highest slopes of the northern mountains, above the conifers | stunted pine, juniper and shrubs; roots spread sideways on thin soil and branches slope to shed snow |
| Coniferous (mountain) forests | the northern mountains (Himalayas, Hindu Kush, Murree hills, Swat, Kohistan), roughly 1,000–4,000 m | deodar, pine, fir, spruce: tall, evergreen, cone-shaped |
| Sub-tropical scrub forests | the foothills and drier hills (Potwar, Salt Range, Kohat) | kikar, phulai, wild olive; trees of moderate height |
| Tropical thorn forests (rakh) | the dry plains of southern Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan | acacia, kikar, thorny bushes; small trees (about 6–10 m) with deep roots and thorns to save water |
| Riverain (riparian) forests | along the Indus and its tributaries in Sindh and the Punjab | shisham, babul, tamarisk, mostly flooded |
| Mangrove forests | the Indus delta and the coast of Sindh and Balochistan | mangroves (a salt-tolerant tree) |
| Irrigated plantations | the Indus Plain (Changa Manga, Chichawatni) | shisham, eucalyptus, poplar, mulberry |
Forests cover only about 5% of Pakistan's land (much less than the recommended 25%, and much lower than India or Bhutan). By region, Gilgit–Baltistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have the highest share, and Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan the lowest (figures vary by source). Forests can also be productive (grown for timber and fuel) or protective (planted to hold soil, give shade and shelter roads and canals). The irrigated plantations at Changa Manga were first planted by the British to provide fuel for the railways. Mangroves have salt-filtering roots and breathing roots that cope with salty, muddy water, and shelter young fish.
Physical and human factors
- Physical: rainfall and temperature (conifers need cooler, wetter climate; the dry plateau gets only scrub), altitude, soil, flooding (riverain), salt water (mangroves).
- Human factors that reduced them: cutting for timber and fuelwood; clearing for farmland and settlement; overgrazing; forest fires; and the "timber mafia".
Plantations and afforestation
- Plantations in the Indus Plain supply timber, fuelwood and paper-pulp wood, and shade, using canal water.
- Afforestation on mountain slopes and plateaux prevents soil erosion, landslides and silting of dams, and keeps the water balance.
Deforestation: effects and solutions
| Effects | Solutions |
|---|---|
| soil erosion (nothing holds the soil) | afforestation and reforestation (planting more than is cut, such as the Billion Tree project in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) |
| silting of rivers, canals and dams (Tarbela and Mangla lose capacity) | laws to protect forests and stop illegal logging |
| flooding (less water absorbed) | alternative fuels (gas, solar) to cut firewood use |
| loss of wildlife and biodiversity, and climate change | community forestry, education, and controlled grazing |
Mineral resources
| Mineral | Where | Uses |
|---|---|---|
| Limestone | Potwar, Kohat, Hub (Balochistan), the Salt Range | cement, steel (as a flux), glass, fertiliser |
| Gypsum | Salt Range, Kohat, Dera Ghazi Khan | cement, plaster of Paris, fertiliser, paints, building boards, and spreading on salty soil to help reclaim farmland |
| Rock salt | Khewra (Salt Range), Kalabagh | cooking and industry (chemicals); the Khewra Salt Mine is among the largest in the world |
| Coal | Thar, Lakhra and Sonda (Sindh), Sor Range and Khost (Balochistan), the Salt Range | power stations and industry (brick kilns, cement) |
| Iron ore | Kalabagh, Chiniot (low grade) | steel |
| Copper and gold | Saindak and Reko Diq (Balochistan) | metals and industry |
| Chromite | Muslim Bagh, Zhob | steel alloys |
| Marble | northern areas and the north-west (for example Mardan, Buner and Chitral) | building, flooring, ornaments |
| Clays (china clay, fire clay) | various, including the Potwar and Sindh | pottery, ceramics, fire-bricks |
| Sulphur | Koh-e-Sultan (Chagai) | sulphuric acid, fertiliser, paints, explosives |
| Manganese and bauxite | small deposits in several areas | manganese for steel alloys and batteries; bauxite for aluminium (utensils, cans) |
Exploitation. Pakistan has many minerals but many are small or low-grade, the mining industry is under-developed (lack of capital, technology and roads in remote areas), and some areas (Balochistan) have security problems.
Organisations. The Geological Survey of Pakistan (1947) surveys deposits, and the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC) (1974) explores and develops them. Metallic minerals (such as copper, chromite, iron ore) are found as ores that must be crushed and processed; non-metallic ones include salt, gypsum, limestone and coal.
Environmental problems of mining: land scarred and spoiled, dust and noise, water pollution, loss of vegetation, subsidence, and danger to workers.
Benefits of developing minerals: employment, exports, less need for imports, and industry (cement, steel, power). Sustainability requires careful extraction, restoring land after mining, and limits to avoid exhaustion of reserves.
Imports. Pakistan imports coking coal and iron ore for steel (mostly from Australia and South Africa, and other places), sulphur and other minerals.
Fish
Fishing methods
- Marine fishing (the Arabian Sea): large trawlers and mechanised boats with nets; gill nets; small wooden boats for inshore fishing.
- Inland fishing: rivers, lakes, reservoirs (Tarbela, Mangla), canals, and fish farms (ponds), mostly in the Punjab and Sindh.
- Fish farming: ponds stocked with carp species; shrimp farms in the coastal Sindh.
Fish caught
| Marine | Inland and farmed |
|---|---|
| shrimp, pomfret, tuna, sardines, mackerel, ribbon fish, sole | rohu, catla, mrigal (carp), trout (in the northern streams), mahseer |
Types of fishing and why Sindh leads
- Subsistence fishing (fish eaten by the family, small wooden sailing boats, traditional nets, close to the shore) and commercial fishing (fish sold, mechanised boats and gill nets that can fish 50–60 km out).
- Most of the marine catch is landed on the Sindh coast, because it has creeks and sheltered harbours (Karachi), a wide shallow shelf, rich plankton and nutrients from the Indus delta, and the best roads, ice plants, processing and export facilities. The Balochistan (Makran) coast has small villages and poor facilities; much of its catch is dried (and sent to the Middle East).
- Inland fishing centres include Manchar, Keenjhar and Haleji lakes in Sindh, the Mangla and Tarbela reservoirs, and the Indus at Sukkur, Kotri and Thatta. Fish farms are rectangular ponds with a lined bottom and trees around to keep the water cool.
- Marketing: most people prefer fresh fish, so frozen and processed fish are sold mainly to export markets (including Gulf, Far East and Europe). Consumption per head in Pakistan is low.
- Sustainable fishing: limits on mesh size (so that young fish are not caught), bans on illegal fishing and on catching endangered species, and quotas, so that stocks can recover.
Fishing ports
- Sindh coast: Karachi (Karachi Fish Harbour at West Wharf), Keti Bandar, Korangi.
- Balochistan coast: Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara and Jiwani.
Uses
Fresh, frozen and dried fish for food; canned fish; exports (especially shrimp); fish meal (animal feed) and fish oil; fish leather and fertiliser.
Improvements, problems and development
| Improvements | Problems |
|---|---|
| motorised and larger boats, better nets, cold storage and ice plants, freezing and canning | overfishing and illegal fishing by foreign trawlers |
| processing plants and export to EU/Asia markets | pollution (sewage, oil, industrial waste) killing fish and mangroves |
| fish farming | poor storage and transport, low prices to fishermen, and old boats |
To develop the industry sustainably: control the catch, protect the mangroves, modernise boats and ports, build cold chains, and expand fish farming.