Sociology · Oct / Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 3
0495
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3(a)(i)[2]
Define the term discrimination. Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. being unfair. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. treating a person or group of people differently to other people, often based on prejudice/stereotypes. Accept any other reasonable response.
3(a)(ii)[2]
Define the term probation. Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. being supervised. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. serving a sentence, or part of it, in the community (not in prison) under supervision. Accept any other reasonable response.
3(b)[2]
State two patterns of victimisation. Award one mark for each correct example (up to a maximum of two). Possible responses:
children – more likely to be victims of crime due to their low power and status, e.g. vulnerable to neglect and abuse within the family;teenagers – more likely to be victims of violent crime as they are more likely to be in public places where crimes occur;older people – vulnerable to becoming victims of cybercrimes due to the digital divide;working class – often victims of burglary and theft because they are unable to afford resources to protect themselves from such crimes;women – most likely to be the victims of domestic and sexual crimes (the most unreported crimes);young men – most likely to be the victims of violent and gang related offences;minority groups – those groups most at risk in a society of prejudice and discrimination are also most likely to be the victims of crime;hate crime – minority groups are most likely to be the victim of hate crime, e.g. racism, homophobia;any other reasonable response.3(c)[6]
Describe three ways informal agencies of social control can prevent crime. Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses:
socialisation – all informal agencies socialise us into the correct, non- criminal, values of society and socially acceptable behaviour. We internalise these norms and self-regulate our behaviour, so preventing crime;personal relationships – relationships are often based on personal networks and contacts and thus letting someone down and disappointing them is often a strong deterrent to committing crime;family – positive and negative sanctions are used in order to establish acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour whereby parents act as role models for their children, thus preventing crime;religion – they have rules about behaviour for their followers and in some countries these religious rules can even become part of the law. Followers are deterred from crime through the fear of living in sin or going to hell;education – formal sanctions co-exist with the hidden curriculum to ensure students follow the rules and become used to social conformity rather than deviance, thus preventing crime;media – reporting about criminal behaviour and court cases informs people about which behaviours will be punished. It reinforces shared feelings about what behaviour is right and wrong and so prevents crime;peer group – these have powerful ways of exercising informal social control in order to prevent crime, e.g. peer pressure, fear of ostracism/social exclusion and negative comments;workplace – all workplaces have rules e.g. timekeeping, uniform and work rate and if these are not followed then the individual will lose their job, which they do not want. The workplace therefore inculcates positive behaviour and so prevents crime;any other reasonable response.3(d)[6]
Explain three limitations of feminist explanations for crime. Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses:
justice – the criminal justice system does not always operate in a patriarchal way, there are many laws that protect women and crimes against women are regularly investigated and punished today;emphasis on gender – feminist explanations for crime focus too much on the gender issue and therefore ignore other relevant social factors such as ethnicity, age and social class;personnel – we do now have senior officials in the criminal justice system who are women, e.g. judges, police officers, barristers etc – they represent women and ensure justice is served in a fair manner;rise of female crime and criminals – female criminality and gang membership is on the increase, something that feminist explanations for crime and deviance do not deal with – women are not just victims of crime, they are the perpetrators too;chivalry factor – Pollak – sometimes females are treated more leniently than males as the chivalry thesis indicates. Feminists ignore this aspect of crime and deviance whereby females benefit;changing definitions of masculinity and femininity – mean that many feminist critiques of older explanations for crime are no longer valid in contemporary societies, feminism has not adapted to the changing roles, norms and values in the world;domestic and sexual crime – feminists fail to take account of new approaches to such crimes – better trained law enforcement officers, specialist teams for support and a higher media profile to encourage the reporting of such crimes, e.g. #metoo;socialisation and social control – women are no longer confined to the domestic sphere and do now have the means and opportunities to commit crime, e.g. by working in white-collar jobs/being the breadwinner;changing culture – misogyny and patriarchy are now widely recognised as being unacceptable in society and therefore formal agencies are dealing with such cases and incidents severely now;any other reasonable response.3(e)[8]
Discuss the view that ethnicity is an important factor in explaining why individuals commit crime. Use Table A to mark answers to this question. Possible responses:
institutional racism – the police, courts and the penal system work in ways that disadvantage ethnic minorities and do not treat them in the same way as the ethnic majority, e.g. the Stephen Lawrence case in the UK, BLM protests against police brutality in the USA – resistance to racism is often a reason for crime;prejudice and discrimination – an ethnic minority individual may be unable to achieve good qualifications at school or to find a good job that they are qualified for because of discrimination. This leads to resentment and disillusionment as well as material deprivation which may lead to crime;police targeting – if the police stop and search members of ethnic minorities more than other ethnic groups then more crime will inevitably be uncovered in these ethnic groups. Such unfair targeting may also lead to mistrust and dislike of the police and then to deviancy amplification;deprivation and marginalisation – when opportunities to achieve success in society are blocked, ethnic minorities may turn to crime as a response to their deprivation, be this for necessities (material) or to have the things that others in society have (relative);stereotyping – racist stereotypes in society may lead to some ethnic minorities being unfairly labelled as criminals which can then lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Media representations and the creation of moral panics and folk devils are thought to be central to this, e.g. Hall’s study of black muggers;gang culture – young people from ethnic minorities are more likely to grow up in the inner-cities where gangs are commonplace. As a result, they are more likely to join a gang and become involved in criminal behaviour and violence, e.g. illegitimate opportunity structures;status frustration – young ethnic minorities are likely to experience status frustration (Cohen) because for them many of the usual routes to achieving status are blocked and thus crime and/or gang membership is often seen as the only route to improving one’s status;any other reasonable response.3(f)[14]
Evaluate the view that rehabilitation is the most effective way to deal with crime. Use Table B to mark answers to this question. Possible responses for:
prison training – education and training can be offered within prisons to upskill offenders and therefore provide them with ways of earning money through employment when they are released, thus reducing the likelihood of further offending;cause of offending – sometimes rehabilitation addresses the causes of the offending and treats it, e.g. addiction programmes or anger management courses. These aim to address the root causes of offending and change the offender accordingly so that they do not commit further crime;restorative justice – meetings between the offender and the victim so that the offender can hear about the impact of their crime on the victim. This has proved successful to reduce reoffending particularly in minor crimes as the offender is made to face up to the consequences of their actions and so becomes rehabilitated;guidance and support – programmes of rehabilitation are now commonly used to run alongside other punishments (in prison or the community). This gives offenders a personalised programme of support over a long period of time to work closely with them to address their individual needs and so prevent further offending, e.g. help to find living accommodation, help with interview skills etc;probation – a period of time when an offender is monitored in the community. The offender attends regular meetings with a probation officer, building up relationships and slowly working on rehabilitating the offender so they are safe to live and function within the community;victims – trained police officers and healthcare specialists now form part of the programme of support for victims of crime, helping them to deal with its impact through counselling, targeted support and empathy;other reasonable response. Possible responses against:prison – incapacitating the offender keeps the public safe and ensures further crime cannot be committed whilst the criminal is held in custody. Losing one’s liberty is the best way to deal with crime;too soft on crime – the New Right and Right Realists would argue that rehabilitation is too soft in its approach to crime and that the only way we can successfully deal with it is with harsher sentencing and methods of social control;capital punishment – the death penalty is the best way to deal with serious crime as it guarantees that the offender cannot commit further crimes. Some crimes are so heinous and terrible that this is thought to be the only way to deal with the issue fairly and effectively, bringing justice to the victim’s family;corporal punishment – physical punishment intended to cause pain. This is a short, sharp shock aimed at teaching the offender a lesson and so quickly and cheaply dealing with the problem of crime, e.g. flogging or whipping an offender;community sentencing – doing compulsory, unpaid work in the community, often to match the nature of the crime committed, is a better way to deal with crime as not only does the offender have to put right their wrong but also there are benefits for the community who have been affected by the offending, e.g. cleaner streets, new facilities;vigilante groups – groups of citizens sometimes decide to punish offenders themselves, often using social media to spread the news. This is often used when authorities aren’t seen to be doing enough. This scares other offenders into not offending as well as removing the criminal from the streets;financial penalties – many white-collar or corporate crimes would not be appropriate for rehabilitative sentencing as there is no issue to ‘fix’. A fine is therefore imposed instead as the punishment, e.g. for crimes such as fraud, money laundering;exile and ostracism – the offender is required to leave their home and community and start a new life elsewhere. Modern societies can impose injunction or restraining orders with the same aims and effects. This can be better than rehabilitation because the problem is removed therefore preventing further offending;deterrence – putting others off committing crime is one of the aims of punishment and this may not be achieved through rehabilitative punishments. Consequences need to be harsher for this aim to be met, e.g. long prison sentences, capital punishment;retribution – making the punishment fit the crime – it may be that the aim of punishment is not to ‘fix’ the offender but to make the offender suffer for what they have done (often serious crimes) and therefore harsh punishments are required which would not be rehabilitative;any other reasonable response.
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