Sociology · May / June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 3

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There are many explanations for crime such as labelling theory and Marxism, as well as explanations which consider age, ethnicity and gender. For example, the media often represents males as more 3 criminal. In reality not all males have the same chance of being arrested. Due to the negative effects of crime, society focuses on different forms of crime prevention.

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3(a)[2]
What is meant by the term ‘crime prevention’? One mark for a partial definition, e.g. surveillance. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. attempts by agencies or individuals to reduce crime, enforce laws and maintain criminal justice.
3(b)[4]
Describe two examples of cyber crimes. Possible answers:
spreading computer viruses and malware;
fraud and identity theft;
internet scams targeting individual users e.g. catfishing;
harassment by cyberstalking or cyberbullying;
websites with obscene or offensive content and the spread of such content via email/mobile phone;
the dark web e.g. trade in illegal drugs and other illegal goods;
cyberterrorism – using the internet for deliberate, widespread attacks on computers or computer networks e.g. hacking;
any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
3(c)[6]
Explain how age can affect criminal behaviour. Possible answers:
youth sub-cultures − young people are more likely than older to join a sub-culture such as Punks or Skins and engage in criminal/deviant behaviour;
gangs − young people may be peer pressured into becoming involved with criminal behaviour such as violence, trafficking and drug dealing;
work − the elderly and the very young are unable to commit white-collar and corporate crime as they do not have access to the workplace − the middle aged do;
crimes related to new technologies − older people do not typically have the ICT/digital skills necessary to engage in many cyber-crimes, making it more likely to be committed by younger people;
status crimes − many crimes committed by younger people are only crimes because of the offenders age e.g. under-age drinking;
Matza − drift theory − this research shows that most younger people drift into minor crimes but as they get older drift back out − they are not career criminals;
juvenile delinquency − Chambliss − this study showed how prolific delinquency was in working class youth;
postmodernism − young people are more likely to commit crime because they are in search of thrills and excitement;
more to lose − older people have more responsibilities and more to lose from a criminal lifestyle therefore are less likely to take part in a crime;
the elderly − may not have the physical strength necessary to commit many crimes;
Japan − ageing population − here there is a big rise in crimes committed by the elderly and special prison accommodation has begun to be built to accommodate these criminals;
any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail.
3(d)[8]
Explain why not all males have the same chance of being arrested. Possible answers:
age − younger males are more likely to be arrested than older males due to stereotypes, gang membership, status frustration etc.;
ethnicity − some minority ethnic males are more likely to be stopped and searched than others which will affect the arrest rate
social class − males in the lower social classes are more likely to be arrested due to police targeting and criminalisation of working classes;
material deprivation − Marxism − men who are living in poverty are more likely to be arrested as they are more likely to commit crime;
educational success − those males who have done well in education and gained qualifications are less likely to be arrested than those without qualifications as they form part of the ‘invisible criminals;
types of masculinity − Connell − hegemonic males are more likely to be arrested than new men and other more modern versions of masculinity as they can get into altercations, be resistant to authority etc.;
labelling theory − Becker − some males are labelled as criminal by those in power and thus may suffer from a self-fulfilling prophecy and adopt a deviant career which is likely to involve being arrested;
Cicourel − typical offender − the police and the courts all have a stereotype of who typically commits crime meaning that those males who don’t match up are unlikely to come to the authorities attention;
Chambliss – saints and the roughnecks − this study showed that police were far more likely to arrest working class male ‘roughnecks’ than middle class male ‘saints’, despite them committing the same acts;
socialisation − New Right/Murray − how a male is brought up, his norms and values will influence whether he commits a crime or is arrested;
any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
3(e)[15]
To what extent is labelling theory the best explanation for crime and deviance? Possible answers: Arguments for:
Labelling theory − Becker − everyone does things that could be labelled criminal but only a small number of people actually get labelled and this then leads to us forming stereotypes of who the criminals are;
self-fulfilling prophecy − being labelled as criminal or deviant causes people to live up to the label and act accordingly;
deviancy amplification − police and other formal agents’ labels can actually cause more crime and deviance in society e.g. Young ‘The Drugtakers’ and Cohen ‘Mods and Rockers’;
police targeting − the police target certain social groups e.g. stop and search rates for some social groups are far higher than for others which explains their distrust of the police and their criminality;
deviant career − when a labelled person’s self-identity starts to change (due to the labelling process) then they may adopt a deviant career and join an organised deviant group e.g. a gang, that justifies and normalises their offending;
Cicourel typical delinquent − this study shows that courts and police have a picture of who typically commits crime and those individuals that fit this picture are more likely to be thought of as criminals;
master status − this status overrides all others and becomes the way an individual sees themselves as well as how others see them − if this is as a criminal then it is not surprising that criminal behaviour continues;
secondary and primary deviance − Lemert − primary deviance refers to acts that are not labelled as criminal, secondary to those that are;
power − labels have such an influence on people because they are given by those in positions of power such as the police, the courts and teachers. This makes the criminal label stick and hard to get rid of thus a life of crime becomes the only option;
any other reasonable response. Arguments against:
functionalism − some crime and deviance is necessary in society as it reminds people of the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour thus promoting social order;
Merton’s strain theory − crime occurs when there is a mismatch between individuals’ goals and their ability to achieve these legitimately;
Cohen status frustration − crime is committed because some people feel anger and frustration about their position in society and inability to gain status legitimately;
relative deprivation − in a consumer society many people feel it is unjust that they do not have what others do which may lead some to crime;
Marxism − material deprivation − those in poverty are more likely to turn to crime because they need money to survive;
feminism − domestic abuse and sexual assault − this is committed due to patriarchal structures in society and a male need to prove their power and dominance, keeping women ‘in their place’;
Messerschmidt − masculinity − males feel a lot of pressure to be the provider and to act tough − this can sometimes lead to criminal behaviour;
postmodernism − crime is committed because it is thrilling and exciting;
Miller − focal concerns − crime and deviance is committed because many of the norms and values of the working class are similar to crime and deviance;
self-negating prophecy − labels do not have to be lived up to, they can be resisted instead;
any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

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