Islamiyat · May / June 2026 · Paper 22 · Question 3

Give an account of the martyrdom of two of the following Rightly Guided Caliphs:

Use the AO1 Levels of Responses

ʿUmar’s martyrdom

ʿUmar’s life came to an abrupt end in 644 CE when he was attacked by a Persian slave named Abu Lulu (Fayruz). Abu Lulu is believed to have held a personal grievance against the Caliph after ʿUmar refused his request to reduce the tax imposed upon him by his master.

While leading the Fajr prayer in the mosque at Madina, ʿUmar was stabbed by Abu Lulu with a double-edged dagger. The attacker also wounded a number of other worshippers before being captured.

ʿUmar survived for three days after the attack but eventually died from his injuries. Before his death, he appointed a council of six companions to choose the next caliph. In accordance with his wishes, and with the permission of ʿAisha, he was buried in the Masjid al-Nabawi beside Hazrat Muhammad (pbuh) and Hazrat Abu Bakr. ʿUthman’s martyrdom

The rebellion against ʿUthman, which began in 656 gradually intensified and finally the rebels surrounded the house of the caliph in Madina. ʿAli, Talha and Zubayr sent their sons to guard ʿUthman’s door from any direct attack on the caliph. However, when the rebels got the news that an elite force dispatched from Syria by Muʿawiyah to defend the caliph was close to Madina they decided to act quickly.

Despite being the caliph, ʿUthman refused to allow fighting in his defence because he wished to avoid bloodshed among Muslims. He instructed the people in his household not to resist the rebels as he alone was their target. He is also reported to have recalled that the Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (pbuh) had foretold his martyrdom.

The rebels eventually entered the house after the defenders laid down their arms on ʿUthman’s order. According to reports, Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was among those who entered. At the time of the attack, ʿUthman was in his room with his wife Naila, reading his personal copy of the Qurʾan. He was struck and martyred while reciting the Qurʾan. It is reported that drops of his blood fell upon verse 137 of Surah al-Baqarah. During the attack, Naila attempted to protect her husband and was injured, losing two of her fingers.

ʿAli’s martyrdom

The year 660 was a year of two oaths: first, a Muslim army from the Syrian garrison toured the Arabian Peninsula, forcing the inhabitants of Makka and Madina and the people of Yemen to swear loyalty to Muʿawiyah at the point of the sword. This was speedily followed by a counter march by the men from the garrison of Kufa who, though unable to intercept Muʿawiyah’s army, supervised another oath of allegiance to ʿAli. These rival oaths of allegiance caused deep division within the Muslim community and angered a group of Kharijis. who at the Muʿawiyah, and ʿAmr ibn al‑ʿAs. The attacks conclusion of Hajj that year, met and vowed to strike simultaneously by removing ʿAli, were planned for Ramadan in the three great mosques of Kufa, Damascus, and Fustat where the three leaders were expected to lead prayers. ʿAli was attacked in the mosque at Kufa by Ibn Muljim while leading the Fajr prayer. He was struck with a poisoned sword and died from his injuries two days later in 661 CE at the age of 63. He was later buried at Najaf in Iraq.

The martyrdom of which Caliph impacted the Muslim community the most? Give reasons to support your answer.

Use the AO2 Levels of Responses

Candidates can choose from between any of the three caliphs listed in part (a) and explain why, in their opinion, the martyrdom of that caliph had the greatest impact on the Muslim community. Answers should be supported by valid reasons and explanations.

Possible points include that ʿUmar’s death created instability within the rapidly expanding Muslim empire. Some conquered regions saw his death as an opportunity to regain independence, and rebellions broke out in Persia and other areas which had to be suppressed in order to restore stability.

Candidates may argue that the martyrdom of ʿUthman had the greatest impact because it led to serious divisions within the Muslim community and resulted in the First Civil War. Many prominent Companions lost their lives during this conflict and Muslim unity was weakened. Others may say that the death of ʿAli had the greatest impact because it deepened political divisions within the umma and contributed to continued instability. Candidates may also refer to later events connected to these divisions, including the martyrdom of Hasan and the tragedy of Karbala in which Husayn was martyred.

All valid and well-supported responses should be accepted and credited.

Use the AO1 Levels of Responses

Belief in the Oneness of God is at the core of Islam. The Qurʾan gives teachings about tawhid in Sura Baqarah, 2:163. Allah’s existence is reflected in His creation, and His presence can be perceived by His answer to our prayers, the miracles He gave some of His prophets, and the teachings in the revealed books.

It could be said that belief in tawhid includes other aspects such as belief in God as the Supreme Lord and Master of all creation; God’s right to be worshipped alone; and knowing and

acknowledging God as He describes Himself with His most beautiful names and attributes. To develop the answer, candidates need to explain what the beliefs stated include. God as Supreme Lord and Master of all Creation:

acknowledging Him alone as the supreme lawgiver, absolute judge and legislator and to submit to His laws and regulations. God alone is entitled to worship: