Islamiyat · May / June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 3

Write about one significant reason for the Battle of Siffin and give a detailed account of the battle.

Use AO1 Levels of Response.

It could be said that the main reason for the Battle of Siffin was that Mu’awiya believed that implementation of the sharia upon the murderers of ‘Uthman took precedence over pledging allegiance to ‘Ali. Verse 33 of Sura 17 of the Qur’an became the cry of Mu’awiyah’s campaign: ‘If anyone is killed wrongly, we give the next of kin authority [to demand qisas or to forgive] but let him not exceed bounds in the matter of taking life.’

‘Ali was determined to unite the ummah and did not want to cause further division hence did not take immediate action to find and punish those that had martyred ‘Uthman.

The Battle

Tensions between the two sides kept building until finally, in 657, the caliph led his army out of the garrison city of Kufa, where he had established his temporary headquarters. Reports differ regarding the size of his army with the most reliable narration determining it to be around 50 000.

Mu’awiya, after consulting with his generals, determined that they would not wait for ‘Ali and his army to enter Syria; rather, they would meet them outside. Mu’awiya along with his army estimated to be around 60 000 reached Siffin, along the lower part of the Euphrates, and camped there waiting for the army of ‘Ali.

There were initial attempts to negotiate but reconciliation failed. The conflict began with individual combats among their forces, which proved indecisive. On the first day of fighting, the two armies stood firm but neither of them had success over the other. The battle intensified on the second day, and on the third night ‘Ali’s army pushed the people of Syria back from their positions. After this night both armies found it very difficult to continue and withstand more fighting. Both sides realised that this conflict was only weakening the Muslim state and if they continued, they would be left vulnerable to outside attacks.

Mu’awiya told his men to tie the Mushaf to the end of their spears, signalling their willingness to mediate by going back to the judgement of the Qur’an rather than fight.

‘Ali accepted, fearing that continued fighting would lead to the weakening of the Muslim state. He was pushed by the extremists to continue to fight but explained to them that there was no option except peace and dialogue because the alternative would mean the potential destruction of the Muslims. The battle ended with arbitration showing the awareness of the ummah to preserve itself against outside enemies thus concluding with a common inclination towards peace.

To what extent was the emergence of the kharijis the most serious issue facing ‘Ali after the Battle of Siffin?

Use AO2 Levels of Response.

Candidates may say that the emergence and rise of the kharijis was perhaps the most serious issue for ‘Ali to deal with as it further divided the ummah. ‘Ali, it could be added, managed to convince many kharijis to join him, but there were a significant number who were very militant and strongly opposed to ‘Ali, which led to the Battle of Nahrawan in which brothers fought brothers and fathers and sons were on opposite sides to each other.

This battle between ‘Ali and the kharijis disheartened the fighters on both sides to the extent that they did not respond to ‘Ali’s call to fight Mu’awiya again. It also sadly led to the assassination of ‘Ali by a khariji.

Some candidates may put forward other viewpoints, saying that in their opinion the emergence of the kharijis was not the most serious issue facing ‘Ali, but rather that the inconclusive outcome of the Battle of Siffin weakened ‘his authority as caliph so much so that he had to move his capital from Madina to Kufa to better deal with the challenges he faced, such as the issue with Mu’awiya.

All valid responses to be credited.